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What Are the Weaknesses of Traditional Security Systems? Africas rural communities, which largely operate under subsistent economic systems, overwhelmingly adhere to the traditional institutional systems while urban communities essentially follow the formal institutional systems, although there are people who negotiate the two institutional systems in their daily lives. It should not be surprising that there is a weak social compact between state and society in many African states. Some regimes seem resilient because of their apparent staying power but actually have a narrow base of (typically ethnic or regional) support. In the thankfully rare cases where national governance breaks down completelySouth Sudan, Somalia, CARits absence is an invitation to every ethnic or geographic community to fend for itselfa classic security dilemma. As Mamdani has argued, understanding the role of traditional leadership and customary law in contemporary African societies requires us to understand its history. The fourth part draws a conclusion with a tentative proposal on how the traditional institutions might be reconciled with the formal institutions to address the problem of institutional incoherence. With the exceptions of a few works, such as Legesse (1973), the institutions of the decentralized political systems, which are often elder-based with group leadership, have received little attention, even though these systems are widespread and have the institutions of judicial systems and mechanisms of conflict resolution and allocation of resources, like the institutions of the centralized systems. It may be good to note, as a preliminary, that African political systems of the past dis played considerable variety. Both can be identified as forms of governance. African governance trends were transformed by the geopolitical changes that came with the end of the Cold War. African states, along with Asian, Middle Eastern, and even European governments, have all been affected. Comparing Ethiopia and Kenya, for example, shows that adherents to the traditional institutional system is greater in Ethiopia than in Kenya, where the ratio of the population operating in the traditional economic system is smaller and the penetration of the capitalist economic system in rural areas is deeper. This we might call transformative resilience.21. The quality and durability of such leader-defined adaptive resilience cannot be assured and can be reversed unless the associated norms become institutionalized. The nature of governance is central because it determines whether the exercise of authority is viewed as legitimate. The traditional African religions (or traditional beliefs and practices of African people) are a set of highly diverse beliefs that include various ethnic religions . Yet, governments are expected to govern and make decisions after consulting relevant stakeholders. PDF NNSO OKAF, Ph.D. (a.k.a. OKEREAFEZEKE) Many of the chieftaincy systems, such as those in much of South Africa, the Asantehene of the Ashanti of Ghana, the Tswana of Botswana, and the Busoga of Uganda seem to fall within this category. African Politics - Political Science - iResearchNet Pastoral economic systems, for example, foster communal land tenure systems that allow unhindered mobility of livestock, while a capitalist economic system requires a private land ownership system that excludes access to others and allows long-term investments on land. Introduction: The Meaning of the Concept Government 1.1. South Africas strategy revolves around recognition of customary law when it does not conflict with the constitution and involves traditional authorities in local governance. Public Administration and Traditional Administrative System in Africa Institutions represent an enduring collection of formal laws and informal rules, customs, codes of conduct, and organized practices that shape human behavior and interaction. A strict democracy would enforce the "popular vote" total over the entire United States. Legitimacy based on successful predation and state capture was well known to the Plantagenets and Tudors as well as the Hapsburgs, Medicis, and Romanovs, to say nothing of the Mughal descendants of Genghis Khan.14 In this fifth model of imagined legitimacy, some African leaders operate essentially on patrimonial principles that Vladimir Putin can easily recognize (the Dos Santos era in Angola, the DRC under Mobutu and Kabila, the Eyadema, Bongo, Biya, and Obiang regimes in Togo, Gabon, Cameroon, and Equatorial Guinea, respectively).15 Such regimes may seek to perpetuate themselves by positioning wives or sons to inherit power. This adds to the challenge of building national identities; this identity vacuum increases the risk that political elites and social groups will capture the state for narrower, self-interested purposes that weaken, rather than strengthen, social cohesion. Precolonial Political Systems - African Studies - Oxford Bibliographies One is the controversy over what constitutes traditional institutions and if the African institutions referred to as traditional in this inquiry are truly indigenous traditions, since colonialism as well as the postcolonial state have altered them notably, as Zack-Williams (2002) and Kilson (1966) observe. Governance also has an important regional dimension relating to the institutional structures and norms that guide a regions approach to challenges and that help shape its political culture.1 This is especially relevant in looking at Africas place in the emerging world since this large region consists of 54 statesclose to 25% of the U.N.s membershipand includes the largest number of landlocked states of any region, factors that dramatically affect the political environment in which leaders make choices. Others choose the traditional institutions, for example, in settling disputes because of lower transactional costs. for in tradi-tional African communities, politics and religion were closely associated. There is no more critical variable than governance, for it is governance that determines whether there are durable links between the state and the society it purports to govern. Space opened up for African citizens and civil society movements, while incumbent regimes were no longer able to rely on assured support from erstwhile external partners. On the one hand, they recognize the need for strong, responsive state institutions; weak, fragile states do not lead to good governance. Another issue that needs some clarification is the neglect by the literature of the traditional institutions of the political systems without centralized authority structures. Admittedly, the problem is by no means uniquely African, but it is very commonly experienced in Africa. African Political Systems is an academic anthology edited by the anthropologists Meyer Fortes and E. E. Evans-Pritchard which was published by Oxford University Press on the behalf of the International African Institute in 1940. Only four states in AfricaBotswana, Gambia, Mauritius, and Senegalretained multiparty systems. These events point to extreme state fragility and a loss of sovereign control over violence in the 11 affected countries, led by Nigeria, South Sudan, and the Central African Republic (CAR). The introduction of alien economic and political systems by the colonial state relegated Africas precolonial formal institutions to the sphere of informality, although they continued to operate in modified forms, in part due to the indirect rule system of colonialism and other forms of reliance by colonial states on African institutions of governance to govern their colonies. Chiefs such as those of the Nuer and Dinka are examples of this category. This kind of offences that attract capital punishment is usually . The cases of Nigeria, Kenya, and South Sudan suggest that each case must be assessed on its own merits. PDF The Political Ideology of Indigenous African Political Systems and eLimu | Political developments and systems Indeed, it should be added that a high percentage of todays conflicts are recurrences of previous ones, often in slightly modified form with parties that may organize under more than one flag. One can identify five bases of regime legitimacy in the African context today. This study notes that in 2007 Africa saw 12 conflicts in 10 countries. Typically, such leaders scheme to rig elections or to change constitutional term limitsactions seen in recent years in such countries as Rwanda and Uganda. The roles assigned to them by the colonial state came to an end, and the new state imposed its own modifications of their roles. The role of traditional leaders in modern Africa, especially in modern African democracies, is complex and multifaceted. Societal conflicts: Institutional dichotomy often entails incompatibility between the systems. One influential research group, SIPRI in Sweden, counted a total of 9 active armed conflicts in 2017 (in all of Africa) plus another 7 post-conflict and potential conflict situations.3, More revealing is the granular comparison of conflict types over time. This fragmentation is also unlikely to go away anytime soon on its own. The imperative for inclusion raises many questions: should the priority be to achieve inclusion of diverse elites, of ethnic and confessional constituencies, of a sample of grass roots opinion leaders? At times, these traditional security system elements are sufficient enough for some uses, but there's certainly no denying . The roles that traditional authorities can play in the process of good governance can broadly be separated into three categories: first, their advisory role to government, as well as their participatory role in the administration of regions and districts; second, their developmental role, complementing government?s efforts in mobilizing the . The link was not copied. Many African countries, Ghana and Uganda, for example, have, like all other states, formal institutions of the state and informal institutions (societal norms, customs, and practices). Indications are, however, that the more centralized the system is, the lower the accountability and popular participation in decision making. While comprehensive empirical studies on the magnitude of adherence to traditional institutions are lacking, some studies point out that most people in rural areas prefer the judicial service provided by traditional institutions to those of the state, for a variety of reasons (Logan, 2011; Mengisteab & Hagg, 2017). The swing against western norms was captured in an interview with Ugandas repeatedly re-elected president Yoweri Museveni who remarked How can you have structural adjustment without electricity? These features include nonprofits, non-profits and hybrid entities are now provide goods and services that were once delivered by the government. These migrations resulted in part from the formation and disintegration of a series of large states in the western Sudan (the region north of modern Ghana drained by the Niger River). Another basic question is, whom to include? Roughly 80% of rural populations in selected research sites in Ethiopia, for example, say that they rely on traditional institutions to settle disputes, while the figure is around 65% in research sites in Kenya (Mengisteab & Hagg, 2017). FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT. A second objective is to draw a tentative typology of the different authority systems of Africas traditional institutions. The leaders, their families and allies are exempt. The first objective of the article is to shed light on the socioeconomic foundations for the resilience of Africas traditional institutions. The US system has survived four years of a norm-busting president by the skin of its teeth - which areas need most urgent attention? This brief essay began by identifying the state-society gap as the central challenge for African governance. Pre-colonial Administration of the Yorubas. Overturning regimes in Africas often fragile states could become easier to do, without necessarily leading to better governance. But established and recognized forms of inherited rule cannot be lightly dismissed as un-modern, especially when linked to the identity of an ethnic or tribal group, and could be construed as a building block of legitimacy. Most of the states that had attempted to abolish chieftaincy have retracted the abolitionist decrees and reinstated chiefs. 3. There are very few similarities between democracy and dictatorship. Among the key challenges associated with institutional fragmentation are the following: Policy incoherence: Fragmented economies and institutions represent dichotomous socioeconomic spaces, which makes it highly challenging for policy to address equitably the interests of the populations in these separate socioeconomic spaces. However, they are not merely customs and norms; rather they are systems of governance, which were formal in precolonial times and continue to exist in a semiformal manner in some countries and in an informal manner in others. Ideally, African nations will benefit when civil society respects the states role (as well as the other way around); rather than one-sided advocacy, both sides should strive to create a space for debate in order to legitimize tolerance of multiple views in society. They are already governing much of rural Africa. South Africa: Introduction >> globalEDGE: Your source for Global In general, decentralized political systems, which are often elder-based with group leadership, have received little attention, even though these systems are widespread and have the institutions of judicial systems and mechanisms of conflict resolution and allocation of resources, like the institutions of the centralized systems. Second, the levels of direct battle deaths from these events is relatively low when compared with far higher levels in the wars of the Middle East. In other words, the transition from traditional modes of production to a capitalist economic system has advanced more in some countries than in others. The population in the traditional system thus faces a vicious cycle of deprivation. The size and intensity of adherence to the traditional economic and institutional systems, however, vary from country to country. Most of the regions states were defined geographically by European cartographers at the start of the colonial period. How these differences in leadership structures impinge on the broader institutions of resources allocation patterns, judicial systems, and decision-making and conflict resolution mechanisms is still understudied. Although considerable differences exist among the various systems, opportunities for women to participate in decision making in most traditional systems are generally limited. Department of Political Science, Pennsylvania State University, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, Contentious Politics and Political Violence, Political Values, Beliefs, and Ideologies, Why African Traditional Institutions Endure, Authority Systems of Africas Traditional Institutions, Relevance and Paradox of Traditional Institutions, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.1347, United Nations Office of the Special Adviser on Africa, Global Actors: Networks, Elites, and Institutions, Traditional Leaders and Development in Africa. Such adjustments, however, may require contextualization of the institutions of democracy by adjusting these institutions to reflect African realities. Editorial Citizenship and Accountability: Customary Law and Traditional African states are by no means homogeneous in terms of governance standards: as the Mo Ibrahim index based on 14 governance categories reported in 2015, some 70 points on a scale of 100 separated the best and worst performers.16. One layer represents the formal institutions (laws) of the state. The key . The scope of the article is limited to an attempt to explain how the endurance of African traditional institutions is related to the continents economic systems and to shed light on the implications of fragmented institutional systems. This provides wide opportunity for governments to experiment, to chart a course independent of Western preferences, but it can also encourage them to move toward authoritarian, state capitalist policies when that is the necessary or the expedient thing to do. Traditional Political Ideas, Values, and Practices: Their Status in the Non-official institutions and civil society may have very different ideas from the national government on this issue, leading to debates about legitimacy. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a single article for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy and Legal Notice). The geography of South Africa is vast scrubland in the interior, the Namib Desert in the northwest, and tropics in the southeast. Enlightened leaders face a more complex version of the same challenge: how to find and mobilize the resources for broad-based inclusiveness? by the Board of Trustees of Leland Stanford Junior University. However, three countries, Botswana, Somaliland, and South Africa, have undertaken differing measures with varying levels of success. Chester A. Crocker is the James R. Schlesinger Professor of Strategic Studies at Georgetown University. Maintenance of law and order: the primary and most important function of the government is to maintain law and order in a state. This outline leads us to examine more closely the sources of legitimacy in African governance systems. African Political Systems - Wikipedia Despite undergoing changes, present-day African traditional institutions, namely the customary laws, the judicial systems and conflict resolution mechanisms, and the property rights and resource allocation practices, largely originate from formal institutions of governance that existed under precolonial African political systems. Traditional institutions have continued to metamorphose under the postcolonial state, as Africas socioeconomic systems continue to evolve. Third, Africas conflict burden reflects different forms and sources of violence that sometimes become linked to each other: political movements may gain financing and coercive support from criminal networks and traffickers, while religious militants with connections to terrorist groups are often adept at making common cause with local grievance activists. All the characteristic features of a traditional society are, for obvious reasons, reflected in the education system. Paramount chieftaincy as a system of local government One of these is the potential influence exerted by the regions leading states, measured in terms of size, population, economic weight, and overall political clout and leadership prestige. It is also highly unlikely that such broader aspects of traditional institutions can be eliminated without transforming the traditional modes of production that foster them. The first three parts deal with the principal objectives of the article. The colonial system constitutes the second section. Its marginalization, in turn, impedes the transformation of the traditional sector, thus extending the fragmentation of institutions. A third objective is to examine the relevance of traditional institutions. Features of Yoruba Pre colonial Administration - Bscholarly The purpose is to stress that such efforts and the attendant will By the mid-1970s, the military held power in one-third of the nations of sub-Saharan Africa. The optimistic replyand it is a powerful oneis that Africans will gradually build inclusive political and economic institutions.18 This, however, requires wise leadership. The modern African state system has been gradually Africanized, albeit on more or less the identical territorial basis it began with at the time of decolonization in the second half of the 20 th century. Following decolonization, several African countries attempted to abolish aspects of the traditional institutional systems. The Constitution states that the institution, status and roles of traditional leadership, according to customary law, are recognised. The key lies in identifying the variables that will shape its context. While empirical data are rather scanty, indications are that the traditional judicial system serves the overwhelming majority of rural communities (Mengisteab & Hagg, 2017). Traditional affairs. On the one hand, traditional institutions are highly relevant and indispensable, although there are arguments to the contrary (see Mengisteab & Hagg [2017] for a summary of such arguments). It may be useful to recall that historical kingships or dynasties were the common form of rule in Europe, India, China until modern times, and still is the predominant form of rule on the Arabian Peninsula. Government as a Structural Element of Society 2.2. In some countries, such as Botswana, customary courts are estimated to handle approximately 80% of criminal cases and 90% of civil cases (Sharma, 2004). Why can't democracy with African characteristics maintain the values, culture and traditional system of handling indiscipline, injustice and information management in society to take firm roots. Key Takeaways. The evidence suggests that traditional institutions have continued to metamorphose under the postcolonial state, as Africas socioeconomic systems continue to evolve. Long-standing kingdoms such as those in Morocco and Swaziland are recognized national states. Executive, legislative, and judicial functions are generally attributed by most modern African constitutions to presidents and prime ministers, parliaments, and modern judiciaries. In this context the chapter further touches on the compatibility of the institution of chieftaincy with constitutional principles such as equality, accountability, natural justice, good governance, and respect for fundamental human rights. 1.4. Examine the definitions, strengths, and weaknesses of several common governments: monarchy, theocracy . Ousted royals such as Haile Selassie (Ethiopia) and King Idriss (Libya) may be replaced by self-anointed secular rulers who behave as if they were kings until they, in turn, get overthrown. Nation, Tribe and Ethnic Group in Africa | Cultural Survival As a result, customary law, which often is not recognized by the state or is recognized only when it does not contradict the constitution, does not protect communities from possible transgressions by the state. Less than 20% of Africas states achieved statehood following rebellion or armed insurgency; in the others, independence flowed from peaceful transfers of authority from colonial officials to African political elites. It seems clear that Africas conflict burden declined steadily after the mid-1990s through the mid-2000s owing to successful peace processes outstripping the outbreak of new conflicts; but the burden has been spiking up again since then. Legitimate authority, in turn, is based on accepted laws and norms rather than the arbitrary, unconstrained power of the rulers. Your current browser may not support copying via this button. The earliest known recorded history arose in Ancient Egypt . These communities select the Aba Gada, who serves a nonrenewable term of 8 years as leader. Afrocentrism, also called Africentrism, cultural and political movement whose mainly African American adherents regard themselves and all other Blacks as syncretic Africans and believe that their worldview should positively reflect traditional African values. For example, the election day itself goes more or less peacefully, the vote tabulation process is opaque or obscure, and the entire process is shaped by a pre-election playing field skewed decisively in favor of the incumbents. Broadly speaking, indigenous systems of governance are those that were practiced by local populations in pre-colonial times. Challenges confronting the institution of chieftaincy have continued from the colonial era into recent times. That is, each society had a set of rules, laws, and traditions, sometimes called customs, that established how the people would live together peacefully as part of larger group. Under the circumstances, it becomes critical that traditional leaders are directly involved in local governance so that they protect the interests of their communities. Institutional dichotomy also seems to be a characteristic of transitional societies, which are between modes of production. As a United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (UNECA) study (2007) notes, traditional leaders often operate as custodians of customary law and communal assets, especially land. After examining the history, challenges, and opportunities for the institution of traditional leadership within a modern democracy, the chapter considers the effect of the current constitutional guarantee for chieftaincy and evaluates its practical workability and structural efficiency under the current governance system. However, there are customs and various arrangements that restrain their power. The Alafin as the political head of the empire was . THE FUTURE OF AFRICAN CUSTOMARY LAW, Fenrich, Galizzi, Higgins, eds., Cambridge University Press, 2011, 27 Pages Hoover Education Success Initiative | The Papers. Subsequent to the colonial experience, traditional institutions may be considered to be informal institutions in the sense that they are often not sanctioned by the state. The leader is accountable to various levels of elders, who serve as legislators and as judges (Legesse, 1973; Taa, 2017). The traditional justice system, thus, does not have the power to grant any rights beyond the local level. In the centralized systems also, traditional leaders of various titles were reduced to chiefs and the colonial state modified notably the relations between the chiefs and their communities by making the chiefs accountable to the colonial state rather than to their communities (Coplan & Quinlan, 1997). My intention in this chapter is to explore the traditional African ideas and values of politics with a view to pointing up what may be described as the democratic features of the indigenous system of government and to examine whether, and in what ways, such features can be said to be harmonious with the ethos of contemporary political culture and hence can be said to be relevant to . Paramount chieftaincy is a traditional system of local government and an integral element of governance in some African countries such as Sierra Leone, Ghana, Liberia and Ivory Coast. Figure 1 captures this turn to authoritarianism in postindependence Africa. A Functional Approach to define Government 2. On the other hand, weak or destructive governance is sometimes the source of conflicts in the first place. In African-style democracy the rule of law is only applicable to ordinary people unconnected to the governing party leadership or leader. A Sociology of Education for Africa . Their endurance and coexistence with the institutions of the state has created an institutional dichotomy in much of Africa. For these and other reasons, the state-society gap lies at the heart of the problems faced by many states.